How the brain creates and stores new memories

A brain structure called the hippocampus is widely thought to turn new information into permanent memories while we sleep. High-frequency bursts of neural firing called ripples in the hippocampus during sleep and suggested they play a role in memory storage. The current study confirmed the presence of ripples in the hippocampus during sleep and found them in certain parts of association neocortex, an area on the brain's surface involved in processing complex sensory information.

Researchers used a cutting-edge NeuroGrid along with recording electrodes placed deeper into the brain, the they examined activity in several parts of rats' brains during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, the longest stage of sleep. Their NeuroGrid consists of a collection of tiny electrodes linked together like the threads of a blanket, which is then laid across an area of the brain so that each electrode can continuously monitor the activity of a different set of neurons.

The team was also surprised to find that the ripples in the association neocortex and hippocampus occurred at the same time, suggesting the two regions were communicating as the rats slept. Because the association neocortex is thought to be a storage location for memories, the researchers theorized that this neural dialogue could help the brain retain information.

They examined brain activity during NREM sleep in rats trained to locate rewards in a maze and in rats that explored the maze in a random. In the latter group of animals, the ripples in the hippocampus and cortex were no more synchronized before exploring the maze than afterwards. In the trained rats, the learning task increased the cross-talk between those areas, and a second training session boosted it more, suggesting that such communication is important for the creation and storage of memories.
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Men's age affects the growth of embryo

In vitro fertilisation IVF scientists have discovered that embryos created with sperm from men over the age of 50 divide more slowly and take longer to reach the early stage known as a blastocyst, when the embryo is ready to be implanted in the womb.

Embryos created with sperm from men over 50 years developed 35 per cent more slowly than embryos created with sperm from men under 35. Considering only embryos that reached the blastocyst stage, the time to reach this point was 4.3 per cent slower for the embryos of men over 50 years than for the embryos of men under 35.

As men age, their sperm becomes more prone to develop mutations that result in DNA errors. Sperm from older men was found to have an abnormal number of chromosomes in each cell – either too many or too few, a condition called aneuploidy. This will prevents the  sperm from creating a healthy embryo.

The team analysed the DNA of sperm from men whose partners were experiencing recurring pregnancy loss.
The men were divided into seven age groups, with the youngest group aged 25 to 30 and the oldest over 55. Their sperm was tested for aneuploidy and DNA sequencing for a type of mutation called copy number variation CNV.

Both types of defects were highest in the oldest age group. Fertilisation rate was 87.7 per cent in the youngest age group and declined to 46 per cent in the oldest group. Age can increase the risks of poor pregnancy outcomes and the potential for neurodevelopmental problems in offspring.
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Synthetic beta cells for secreting insulin

Treating type 1 diabetes and some cases of type 2 diabetes required painful and frequent insulin injections or a mechanical insulin pump for insulin infusion. Researchers have developed artificial cells that automatically release insulin into the bloodstream when glucose levels rise.

The artificial beta cells ABCs mimic the functions of the body's natural glucose-controllers, the insulin-secreting beta cells of the pancreas. The loss or dysfunction of these cells causes type 1 diabetes and many cases of type 2 diabetes.

The idea is that the ABCs could be subcutaneously inserted into patients, which would be replaced every few days, or by a painless and disposable skin patch. A single injection of the ABCs into diabetic mice lacking beta cells quickly normalized the animals' blood glucose levels and kept those levels normal for five days.

The current insulin treatments can not control blood glucose levels automatically and efficiently, as normal insulin-secreting pancreatic cells do. Transplants of pancreatic cells can solve that problem in some cases. However, such cell transplants are expensive, it require donor cells that are often in short supply, require immune-suppressing drugs, and often fail due to the destruction of the transplanted cells.

Smart artificial beta cells could lead to new diabetes treatment. The ABCs showed a rapid responsiveness to excess glucose levels in lab-dish tests and in diabetic mice without beta cells. The mice went from hyperglycemic to normoglycemic within an hour, and they remained normoglycemic for five days. Control mice injected with no-insulin ABCs remained hyperglycemic.
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Effects of pesticides on fertility

Infertility treatments may be less effective for people who eat more foods with higher levels of pesticide residue, some fruits and vegetables, such as strawberries and spinach, tend to require more pesticides to protect the crops, washing them before eating can not remove the pesticides.

Pesticides have been linked to a broad range of negative health effects on the nervous system, skin, eyes and hormone system. Some are suspected to cause cancer. This new study discovered that women being treated for infertility who ate highly pesticide-contaminated fruits and vegetables were less likely to get pregnant than those who ate fewer of these kinds of foods.

If women with higher intakes of pesticides get pregnant, they were still less likely to give birth to a live baby.
Eating fruits and vegetables is important to a balanced and healthy diet. The analysis revealed no significant difference in the likelihood of a successful pregnancy between women who ate high or low amounts of fruits and vegetables.

In humans, studies of men who were directly exposed to high concentrations of pesticides have been links to low counts of weaker sperm and damage to their gonadotropin. Falling fertility rates and rising reproductive cancer rates are too rapid to be genetic issue. Pesticides in common foods increases pregnancy loss, it also leads to cell death in developing embryos.
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Acetaminophen in pregnancy links to ADHD

According to the latest research, children whose mothers used acetaminophen during pregnancy were more likely to be diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ADHD.

The link was confined to longer-term use particularly a month or longer during pregnancy, when expectant mothers used the drug for a week or less, their kids showed a slightly decreased risk of ADHD.

Acetaminophen is known by the brand name Tylenol, but it's an active ingredient in many pain relievers.
According to the study researchers, longer-term use was tied to ADHD whether women used it for pain, fevers or infections.

Pregnant women should not be afraid of using acetaminophen for a short period to treat fever because an untreated fever could leads to some birth defects. Acetaminophen may interfere with maternal hormones that are important for fetal brain development. Pregnant women should avoid long-term use of acetaminophen or any pain reliever drug.
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Infertility increases the risk of untimely death

According to a new study, infertility increases a woman's chance of untimely death compared to women who have had children. Having fertility problems also raised the chance of getting breast cancer and diabetes.

Having children protects women from untimely death, research shows that giving birth has a rejuvenating effect on a woman's body, being infertile may be a sign of underlying health problems, which may worsen overall health.

Women were classed as infertile, if they had reported being unable to conceive for one year. Female infertility patients had a higher risk of death from hormone related disorders such as breast cancer and diabetes.

Infertility was not linked to higher rates of ovarian cancer, or cancers of the womb. And even though the incidence of diabetes was similar in fertile and infertile women, infertile women experienced an increased risk of death from endocrine related diseases.

Having a baby is protective for health. Looking at the studies of women who have never given birth to children, they are at an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and several malignancies. Sharing blood with a growing fetus rejuvenates the mother's blood.
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Gut bacteria may change after severe injury

After a severe traumatic injury, the composition of a patient's intestinal bacteria changes and this could affects patient's prognosis. The gut microbiome experiences a depletion in the presence of some bacteria and an increase in the presence of others came from a small investigation, involving critically injured adults.

Stool samples were collected from each person three times: when they were admitted to the hospital, and then 24 and 72 hours later. The samples were compared with those from 10 other patients who had not sustained traumatic injury.

Samples taken at the time of admission were similar in both groups. But within 24 hours, differences started to show, the investigators found. By 72 hours, three types of bacteria were depleted in the traumatic injury group, relative to the non-injury group, and the levels of two other types of bacteria had risen.

Rapid alterations in intestinal microbiota represent a critical and unrecognized phenomenon that may influence clinical course and outcomes after severe trauma. The intestinal bacterial composition could in some way be critical to patient outcomes after a traumatic injury. This could create the way towards interventions, such as administering probiotic regimens that might improve patient outcomes after injury.
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Lung cancer genetic biomarkers

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms SNPs are variations in human DNA that determine human susceptibility to developing some diseases. Using the largest genome-wide SNP-smoking interaction analysis reported for lung cancer, researchers identified three novel SNPs. The results from their study reinforce that gene-smoking interactions play important roles in the etiology of lung cancer and responsible for part of the missing heritability of this disease.

Environmental and genetic risk factors contribute to development of lung cancer. Tobacco smoking is the most well-known environmental risk factor associated with lung cancer. They conducted a study to display that gene-smoking interactions play important roles in the etiology of lung cancer.

In their study, three novel SNPs (single-nucleotide polymorphisms), or variations in our DNA that underlie human susceptibility to developing disease, were identified in the interaction analysis, including two SNPs for non-small cell lung cancer risk and one SNP for squamous cell lung cancer risk. The three identified novel SNPs provide potential candidate biomarkers for lung cancer risk screening and intervention.

The genotype and phenotype data used in this analysis came from OncoArray Consortium. Genome-wide interaction scanning remains a challenge as most genome-wide association studies are designed for main effect association analysis and have limited power for interaction analysis.

The three SNPs, identified in the team's study, stratify lung cancer risk by smoking behavior. These three SNPs can be potential biomarkers used to improve the precision to which researchers can categorize an individual's risk of lung cancer disease by smoking behavior, which are helpful for individualized prognosis and prediction of treatment plan.
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MicroRNA regulates movements of tumour cells

Cancer cells can reactivate a cellular process that is an essential part of embryonic development. This allows them to leave the primary tumor, penetrate the surrounding tissue and form metastases in peripheral organs.

During an embryo's development, epithelial cells can break away from the cell cluster, modify their cell type-specific properties, and migrate into other regions to form the desired structures. This process is known as an epithelial–mesenchymal transition EMT is reversible and can also proceed in the direction from mesenchymal cells to epithelial cells (MET).

It is repeated multiple times during embryonic development and ultimately paves the way for the formation of organs in the human body. Tumor cells can reactivate the program. Although this is a completely normal process during embryogenesis, it also plays an important role in the spread of tumor cells within the body and in the formation of metastases.

Tumor cells are able to reactivate the EMT/MET program. By doing so, they obtain characteristics of stem cells and develop strong resistance to classical and state-of-the-art targeted cancer therapies. An EMT also makes it easier for cancer cells to break away from the primary tumor, to penetrate into surrounding tissue and into blood vessels, to spread throughout the body and to form metastases in distant organs, which is ultimately responsible for the death of most cancer patients.

Regulation the cellular EMT program prevents the development of malignant tumors and the formation of metastases such as in the case of breast cancer, researchers focused specifically on microRNAs (miRNAs), a class of very short non-coding RNAs with a considerable effect on gene regulation.
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Moderate drinking of red wine reserves ovaries

Moderate drinking of red wine can increase the chance of conceiving, there is a link between drinking of red wine and healthy ovaries that produce more eggs. Researchers studied different women of reproductive age and measured their antral follicle count- ovarian reserve.

Antral follicle count AFC is the standard way of assessing a woman’s fertility. This is the ovaries’ capacity to make healthy egg cells, which is measured by counting the antral follicles that produce them.

Women who drank moderate amounts of red wine were found to have the highest ovarian reserve. Red wine intake is associated with ovarian reserve as measured by AFC. Anti-inflammatory compound- resveratrol in red wine may be responsible for this.

Drinking small amount of red wine might reserve ovaries. Apart from red wine, healthy lifestyle and eating of balanced diet especially plant based protein can increase the chance of conceiving.
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How Zika virus infects developing brain

Zika virus is transmitted from mother to fetus by infected cells that later develop into the brain's first and primary form of defense against invasive pathogens. During embryogenesis- the early stages of prenatal development cells called microglia form in the yolk sac and then disperse throughout the central nervous system CNS of the developing fetus.

In the brain, these microglia will become resident macrophages whose job is to constantly clear away plaques, damaged cells and infectious agents. The Zika virus can infect these early microglia, moving into the brain where they transmit the virus to other brain cells, leading to devastating neurological damage.

The Zika virus is transmitted to people through the bite of infected Aedes species mosquitoes. However, a pregnant woman can also pass the virus to her fetus, the researchers used human induced pluripotent stem cells to create two relevant CNS cell types: microglia and neural progenitor cells (NPCs), which generate the millions of neurons and glial cells required during embryonic development.

Then they established a co-culture system that mimicked the interactions of the two cell types in vitro when exposed to the Zika virus. They discovered that the microglia cells engulfed Zika-infected NPCs, doing their job. But when these microglia carrying the virus were placed in contact with non-infected NPCs, they transmitted the virus to the latter.
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Transplanted hematopoietic stem cells reverse damage caused by neuro-muscular disorder

Single infusion of wildtype hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) into a mouse model of Friedreich's ataxia (FA) measurably halted cellular damage caused by the degenerative disease. Friedreich's ataxia is an inherited, degenerative neuromuscular disorder that initially impairs motor function, such as gait and coordination, but can lead to scoliosis, heart disease, vision loss and diabetes. Cognitive function is not affected.

The disease is progressively debilitating, and ultimately requires full-time use of a wheelchair. FA is caused by reduced expression of a mitochondrial protein called frataxin (FXN) due to a two mutated or abnormal copies of the FXN gene. Researchers used a transgenic mouse model that expresses two mutant human FXN transgenes, and exhibits the resulting progressive neurological degeneration and muscle weakness.

Human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs), derived from bone marrow, have become a primary vehicle for efforts to replace or regenerate cells destroyed by a variety of diseases. Transplanting wildtype or normal mouse HSPCs resulted in long-term kidney, eye and thyroid preservation in a mouse model of cystinosis, another genetic disorder.

Researchers transplanted wildtype HSPCs into an FA mouse model, reporting that the HSPCs engrafted and soon differentiated into macrophages in key regions of the mice's brain and spinal cord where they appeared to transfer wildtype FXN into deficient neurons and muscle cells. Transplantation of wildtype mouse HSPCs essentially rescued FA-impacted cells expression was restored. Mitochondrial function in the brains of the transgenic mice normalized, as did in the heart. There was also decreased skeletal muscle atrophy.
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Emotional reaction to odors

An alexithymic individual has difficulty, to a greater or lesser degree, in relating to sensations associated with emotion.
There is a partial overlap between the areas in human brain that deal with olfactory perception and those that process emotions.

Scientists divided study participants into three groups according to the severity of alexithymia (high, medium and low). They underwent a series of olfactory tests in order to investigate their reaction to different types of stimulation.

The scientists found that alexithymic individuals differ from others in their reaction to smells. What specifically distinguishes them are physiological parameters such as heart rate and electrical conductivity of their skin, which was found to be accelerated.

The tests also showed that there are differences in reactions between subjects characterised by affective alexithymia, in which the sphere of sensations, imagination and creativity is restricted, and those with cognitive alexithymia, which compromises the ability to identify, express and distinguish emotions.

The results obtained show that one of the characteristics of alexithymia is the altered physiological response to olfactory stimuli. Contrary to what one might expect, this study shows that the physiological reactions of alexithymic individuals to emotions induced by smells are not lower, but rather more intense. It is as if these subjects find themselves in a situation of perpetual, extreme activation in relation to their emotions, which appears to make them insensitive to emotional changes.
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Using silk to repair spinal cord

Modified silk from Asian wild silkworms could be used in a strategy to repair damaged spinal cords, according to scientists. Cleaned, sterilised silk from the Antheraea pernyi (AP) silk spinner had properties well suited to spinal repair.

Presently there is no cure for serious spinal cord trauma because spinal nerves are unable to cross the scar tissue barrier and the cavity that forms in the cord after the injury. The modified silk would be a 'scaffold' that bridges the spinal injury cavity, supporting nerve growth across damaged region.

Modified silk from Asian wild silkworms could be used in a strategy to repair damaged spinal cords, according to scientists. Cleaned, sterilised silk from the Antheraea pernyi (AP) silk spinner had properties well suited to spinal repair.


Scientists discovered that the modified AP silk had important properties desirable in a scaffold suitable for spinal repair. It has the correct rigidity: if it is too rigid it can harm the surrounding spinal cord tissue but if it is too soft the nerves would fail to grow across it.

The AP silk has a repeated "RGD" chemical sequence on its surface that binds to receptors on the nerve cells, encouraging them to attach to the material and grow along it. The AP silk did not trigger a response by the immune system cells that would be present in the spinal cord, therefore minimising inflammation.

AP silk degrades gradually over time. So, after it has supported the early growth of nerves across the injury site the material dissolves gradually and these pioneer nerves take over the role as scaffold, supporting further nerve growth.

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DNA and RNA editing could heal many diseases

Scientists have discovered two gene editing techniques to fix mutations that cause diseases like cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Both diseases, and about half all human genetic disorders, are caused by mutations in single letters in the human genome, in which an 'A' appears where there should be a 'B.'

The newly-developed gene editing systems can target the smallest units of human DNA or RNA to undo the mutation that causes cystic fibrosis. One system edits DNA in the genome itself, while the other targets RNA, which transports genetic messages for making proteins. The editing systems work in living cells, and if researchers can find ways to deliver them to human patients safely and effectively, they could be used to reverse the mutations that cause genetic diseases.

DNA and RNA contain four base components: adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. Cystic fibrosis is caused by an inherited genetic mutation that leads to abnormal mucus production in the lungs and digestive system. The thicker-than-normal mucus builds up in and blocks airways. It can be managed with breathing machines, inhalers and medications, but some affected by it will eventually need lung transplants. There is no cure for cystic fibrosis and it can be fatal.

Cystic fibrosis could be prevented or corrected if only there were a 'G' in the genome where the disease's victims have an 'A.' The new gene editing technologies could rewrite the part of the genome or its messenger that spells cystic fibrosis. The gene editing system is technically called the Adenine Base Editor, or ABE.

The ‘A’ in ABE is for ‘adenine,’ one of four chemical bases that are the smallest elements of our genomes. Adenine is always paired with thymine, and guanine is always paired with cytosine. ABE targets the ‘A,’ adenine, and rearranges its atoms to turn it into guanine. So, where there is an incorrect AT set of base pairs in the genome, ABE can reset it to a GC.

These genetic editors give scientists the remarkable ability to rewrite any mutated base pair in the genome. The gene editors are developments on the CRISPR technology which allows scientists to efficiently target and edit the genome.

RNA editing avoids interfering with the genome itself. Because RNA plays a communication role in humans, rather than being the fundamental genetic information itself, changes to it might be more flexible, and reversible.
However, RNA degrades over time, so the impermanence of changes to its component parts (called nucleoside bases) could be disadvantageous too.
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Mental health condition surpreses the immune system

According to new research, depression increases the risk of an early death.
Men's risk of a premature death increases three-fold when suffering from the mental health condition, while women's risk is heightened by up to 50 percent.

Depression causes the release of stress hormones that suppress the immune system, putting sufferers at an increased risk of conditions such as cancer. People with the mental health condition may have unhealthy lifestyle habits, including a poor diet, inactivity and excessive alcohol intake.

Researchers analyzed more than 3000 adults between 1952 and 1967, 1968 and 1990, and 1991 and 2011. The study's participants' had an average age of 50 when the trial started. Results reveal depression increases the risk of an early death by up to three times. Men's risk increases three-fold, while women's peaks at 51 percent.

Depression is linked to the release of stress hormones that suppress the immune system, putting sufferers at increased risk of disorders including multiple sclerosis, arthritis and some. cancers. People with depression may also neglect their physical health through lifestyle habits such as a poor diet, inactivity, smoking and excessive alcohol intake. The mental health condition is more prevalent in women, however, past findings suggest men suffer the effects of it more as they are often less inclined to seek help.

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Immune cells can repair damaged nerves

Immune cells fight infections, in a new study, scientists have discovered how they also help the nervous system remove debris, clearing the way for nerve regeneration after injury. Some immune cells- neutrophils can clean up nerve debris. Neutrophils are one of the most common types of immune cells and known to engulf microorganisms, but they are not associated with peripheral nerve damage caused by diabetes or trauma.

Damaged nerve cells produce a stream of molecular lures that specifically attract neutrophils to injury sites in mice. Damaged mouse sciatic nerves produced hundreds of times the normal amount of two "chemoattractant" molecules, Cxcl1 and Cxcl2, which attach to the surfaces of neutrophils and draw the immune cells into injured tissue.

Once at the injury site, the neutrophils engulf cellular debris caused by the nerve damage, tidying up the area so the cells can repair themselves. Without the cellular clearance mechanism, nerves can't properly regenerate after injury. The experiments included sorting immune cells found at injury sites by molecules on their cellular surfaces, and many hours looking at mouse cells through the microscope.

Several different cells pick up the slack in the absence of macrophages, it was the neutrophil that emerged as a major contributor to debris removal. We also discovered that when we depleted neutrophils, nerve debris clearance was significantly halted in both normal mice and mice lacking a major population of macrophages.

Without neutrophils, nerve cells could not properly clear debris. This could leads to new therapeutics designed to repair nerve cells damaged by neurodegenerative disease. The clearance of debris after an injury is necessary for effective nerve regeneration. Immunostimulant molecules that target neutrophils at nerve injury location might enhance clean-up and promote nerve cell repair. Immunostimulant molecules are used to treat chronic infections and immunodeficiency.
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Causes of vaginal dryness

Vaginal dryness can lead to discomfort during sex, difficulty reaching orgasm, reduced sex drive, frequent urination and repeated urinary tract infections UTIs. Dryness affect about half of postmenopausal women. The change causes estrogen levels to decline, along with the levels of other steroid hormones, according to the International Society for Sexual Medicine.

These decreases makes the vaginal tissues thinner, drier, less elastic and more fragile, causing discomfort during intercourse. The use of silicone-based vaginal moisturizers and lubricants, or a local vaginal estrogen treatment may help menopausal women. The use of lubricant without glycerin can also help.

Birth control is one of the most common causes of vaginal dryness in young women, how the pill or Nuva ring works, suppressing estrogen and testosterone hormones may cause dryness. The use of an intrauterine device (IUD) may be the best option, it does not contribute to vaginal dryness,
A cold or flu can dehydrate the body and contribute to vaginal dryness.

Estrogen levels can temporarily decrease after giving birth and make vagina feel drier than usual. Breastfeeding increases prolactin, a hormone that causes breast milk production, which in turn suppresses estrogen and testosterone, which can lead to vaginal dryness.

Research shows that smoking can cause vaginal dryness because it destroys estrogen in the body. A cigarette habit also affects blood circulation, resulting in the vagina and other tissues not getting enough oxygen. Women who smoke experience menopause earlier.
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Reversing damaged heart tissue

It is possible to change fibroblasts -scar tissue cells into cardiomyocytes -heart muscle cells. Researchers used single cell RNA sequencing technology in combination with mathematical modeling and genetic and chemical approaches to delineate the step-by-step molecular changes that occur during cell fate conversion from fibroblast to cardiomyocyte. They reconstructed the routes a single cell could take in this process but also identified underlying molecular pathways and key regulators important for the transformation from one cell type to another.

Embryonic stem cells throughout human body gradually changes into a variety of highly specialized cell types, such as neurons, blood cells, and heart muscle cells. New discovery showed that it is possible to revert terminally differentiated somatic cells to a pluripotent state- cell that can self-produce and potentially turn into any kind of cell in the body. Researchers have also figured out how to convert one kind of differentiated somatic cell type into another without detouring through the pluripotent stage or the original progenitor stage. Such findings shifted the paradigm of cellular hierarchy and revolutionized stem cell research and the field of regenerative medicine.


Direct cardiac reprogramming, a promising approach for cardiac regeneration and disease modeling that direct conversion of cardiac non-myocytes into induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs) that closely resemble endogenous CMs. Like any reprogramming process, the many cells that are being reprogrammed don't do so at the same time.

Cellular reprogramming is heterogeneous, which makes it difficult to study using traditional approaches.
Using microfluidic single-cell RNA sequencing techniques, addressed the two main issues of 'asynchronous' programming and heterogeneous cell populations. They analyzed global transcriptome changes during fate conversion from fibroblasts to iCMs.
Using mathematical algorithms, they identified molecularly distinct subpopulations of cells along the reprogramming pipeline.

After a heart attack, cardiac fibroblasts around the injured area are immediately activated and become highly proliferative but this proliferative capacity decreases over time. How to take advantage of the varied cell cycle status of fibroblasts over the progression of a heart attack and its aftermath would certainly broaden the application of cellular reprogramming for patients and optimize outcomes. The molecular features of subpopulations of fibroblasts were differentially suppressed during reprogramming, suggesting that the susceptibility of cells to be reprogrammed varies.

This susceptibility coincides with the timing of cardiomyocyte differentiation during heart development. The signatures in the intermediate populations that seem to appear earlier in heart development were more resistant to the alterations. This suggests that the recent epigenetic memories of cells might be more easily erased, and so the fibroblast subpopulations with such epigenetic features are more easily converted into cardiomyocytes. Adjusting epigenetic memories not just changing their current epigenetic status could be crucial for changing a cell fate for therapeutic value.
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Human memory improved with electrical stimulation

Neuroscientists have discovered precisely where and how to electrically stimulate the human brain to enhance people's recollection of distinct memories. People with epilepsy who received low-current electrical pulses showed a significant improvement in their ability to recognize specific faces and ignore similar ones.

Eight of nine patients' ability to recognize the faces of specific people improved after receiving electrical pulses to the right side of the brain's entorhinal area, which is critical to learning and memory. However, electrical stimulation delivered to the left side of the region, tested on four other people, resulted in no improvement in the patient's recall.

Human memory can be strengthened by electrically stimulating the brain's entorhinal cortex. The researchers followed people with epilepsy who had ultrafine wires implanted in their brains to pinpoint the origin of their seizures. The team monitored the wires to record neuron activity as memories were formed, then sent a specific pattern of quick pulses back into the entorhinal area.

Using the ultrafine wires allowed researchers to precisely target the stimulation but use a voltage as low as one-tenth to one-fifth. The study suggests that low currents of electricity can affect the brain circuits that control memory and human learning. It also illustrates the importance of precisely targeting the stimulation to the right entorhinal region. Other studies that applied stimulation over a wide swath of brain tissue have produce conflicting results. Electrical stimulation could offer promise for treating memory disorders like Alzheimer's disease.
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Shingrix for preventing shingles

Shingrix has been approved for preventing shingles - herpes zoster in adults. Shingrix is a non-live, recombinant subunit vaccine given intramuscularly in two doses. Shingrix represents a significant scientific advancement in the field of vaccinology.

The vaccine has shown over 90% efficacy across all age groups in the prevention of shingles, a painful and potentially serious disease. The risk and severity of shingles increases with age as the immune system loses the ability to produce effective response to infection. Shingrix was developed specifically to overcome the age-related decline in immunity.

Shingrix demonstrated efficacy against shingles greater than 90% across all age groups, as well as sustained efficacy over a follow-up period of 4 years. It also reduced the overall incidence of postherpetic neuralgia PHN a form of chronic nerve pain and the most common complication associated with shingles.

Shingles is caused by the reactivation of the varicella zoster virus VZV, the same virus that causes chickenpox some adults have the VZV dormant in their nervous system, waiting to reactivate with advancing age.

As people age, the cells in the immune system lose the ability to maintain a strong and effective response to VZV. Shingles typically presents as a painful, itchy rash that develops on one side of the body and can last for two to four weeks. The pain associated with shingles is often described as burning, shooting or stabbing.

Do not receive Shingrix if you are allergic to any of its ingredients or had an allergic reaction to a previous dose of Shingrix. The most common side effects are pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site, muscle pain, tiredness, headache, shivering, fever, and stomach ache.

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How the skin controlled blood pressure

Skin plays a surprising role in regulating blood pressure and heart rate, Skin is the largest organ, covering two square metres in humans - helps regulate blood pressure and heart rate in response to changes in the amount of oxygen available in the environment.

High blood pressure is associated with cardiovascular disease, such as heart attack and stroke. For the vast majority of cases of high blood pressure, there is no known cause. It is often associated with reduced flow of blood through small blood vessels in the skin and other parts of the body, a symptom which can get progressively worse if the hypertension is not treated.

Previous research has shown that when a tissue is starved of oxygen - as can happen in areas of high altitude, or in response to pollution, smoking or obesity, for example - blood flow to that tissue will increase. In such situations, this increase in blood flow is controlled in part by the 'HIF' family of proteins.

To investigate what role the skin plays in the flow of blood through small vessels, a team of researchers exposed mice to low-oxygen conditions. These mice had been genetically modified so that they are unable to produce certain HIF proteins in the skin.

The study was set up to understand the feedback loop between the skin and the cardiovascular system. By working with mice. Researchers were able to manipulate key genes involved in this loop. They discovered that in mice lacking one of two proteins in the skin HIF-1α or HIF-2α, the response to low levels of oxygen changed compared to normal mice and that this affected their heart rate, blood pressure, skin temperature and general levels of activity.

Mice lacking specific proteins controlled by the HIFs also responded in a similar way.
In addition, the response of normal, healthy mice to oxygen starvation was more complex than expected. In the first ten minutes, blood pressure and heart rate rise, and this is followed by a period of 36 hours where blood pressure and heart rate decrease below normal levels. 48 hours after exposure to low levels of oxygen and blood pressure the heart rate levels had returned to normal.

Loss of the HIF proteins or other proteins involved in the response to oxygen starvation in the skin, was discovered to change when this process starts and how long it takes. Skin's response to low levels of oxygen may have substantial effects on how the heart pumps blood around the body.
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Why babies should not face the bed while sleeping

According to the latest research, the abnormality in the brain's control of head and neck movement, breathing, heartbeat and the body's responses to deprivation of oxygen supplied, could be the reason why some babies sleeping on their front are more at risk of sudden infants death syndrome SIDS.

SIDS is so devastating because it occurs with no warning and no obvious signs of illness, the exact cause of death in SIDS has not been identified, multiple studies have pointed to a subset of SIDS babies that are not entirely 'normal' before death. These infants all seem to have some form of underlying vulnerability, exposing them to increased risk.

Abnormality within key regions of the brainstem in SIDS babies, specifically in parts of the brainstem that control breathing and movements of the head and neck. This abnormality is directly linked to SIDS cases.
The abnormality is in the transmission in the brain of a neuro-peptide, known as "substance P", and its binding with an associated neuroreceptor, "neurokinin-1" (NK1R).

Substance P and the NK1R neuroreceptor play a critical role in the brain's control of the respiratory system, the cardiovascular system, and in how the body responds to hypoxia- deprivation of oxygen at the cell level. An infant with this abnormality is likely to have impaired respiratory and motor responses to life-threatening challenges during sleep.
Abnormality is a key reason why it is more dangerous for babies to sleep on their front.

If a child has this underlying vulnerability in its brain chemistry, and its breathing becomes compromised by sleeping on its front, that child is at greater risk of death because its body cannot respond in the normal way. The baby can't lift its head, and its breathing and heartbeat will be compromised.

The study has shown that the abnormality in substance P is significantly influenced by prematurity and male sex, which may explain the increased risk of SIDS in premature and male infants.
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E-cigarette leads to craving for tobacco cigarettes

Electronic cigarettes with higher levels of nicotine can be a gateway to tobacco use, researchers compared the nicotine concentration in e-cigarettes to smoking behavior in e-cigarette smokers.

They discovered that half of e-cigarettes smokers with high levels of nicotine will smoke tobacco cigarettes six months later. The study warns about the difficulty in distinguishing levels of nicotine in e-cigarettes due to mislabeling, which can lead to dependency on tobacco products.

Nicotine has mood-elevating and addictive effects, smoking e-cigarettes with stronger nicotine concentrations may be less willing to stop vaping and be more inclined to use other nicotine products, like conventional cigarettes.

The nicotine amounts in e-cigarettes can be divided into four categories: none, low (1-5mg/ml of nicotine), medium (6-17mg/ml of nicotine) and high (18mg/ml or more of nicotine).
Smoking e-cigarette can leads to smoking of tobacco cigarettes after six months.

Nicotine is addictive and may affect the brain development by increasing the risk of attention problems and depression. Smoking-related diseases caused by tobacco use are heart problems and cancers.
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Activation of immune T cells changes behavior

Researchers have discovered that T cells immune cells that protect the body from infections and cancer change the body's metabolism when they are activated, and that this activation leads to changes in behavior.

It is currently known that individual T cells change their metabolism to meet their energy needs after being activated, but the systemic metabolic effect of sustained activation of the immune system has remained unexplored.

 To understand the systemic effects, the group looked at T cell activation in mice designed to lack a surface receptor called PD-1, which is necessary for inhibiting the activity of T cells. T cells remain activated in mice without the receptor, similar to those in the immune systems of people with certain types of autoimmune disease.

In these mice, they found that amino acids molecules that are used to build proteins were depleted in the blood, and that they were increased in the T cells themselves, implicating the T cells in the change. The team tracked and imaged amino acids in many organs, and found that the depletion of amino acids from the blood was taking place due to the accumulation of amino acids in activated T cells in the lymph nodes, showing that strong or long lasting immune responses can cause metabolic changes elsewhere in the body.

Researchers analyzed the biochemistry of the brain, they found that the systemic decrease in the amino acids tryptophan and tyrosine in blood led to lower amounts available in the brain, limiting production of the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine. These neurotransmitters affect emotions, motivation and fear.

Serotonin is often a target of drugs that combat depression. The researchers found that their depletion in mice without PD-1 resulted in behavioral changes dominated by anxiety and exacerbated fear responses, which could be remedied by providing a diet rich in an essential amino acid.
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Breast cancer gene

Breast cancer is caused by complex interactions between a large number of genetic variants and our environment. The inherited component of breast cancer risk is due to a combination of rare variants in genes such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 that confer a high risk of the disease, and many genetic variants that each confer only a small risk.

The newly identified risk regions nearly double the number that are already known, thereby bringing the number of known common variants associated with breast cancer to about 180.
One in five women are in greater danger of getting breast cancer because of faults in their genes. Women are at risk of breast cancer if their mother, daughter or sister has breast cancer.

For one in five women, the errors written into their genes mean they have almost a third higher chance of getting breast cancer. An unlucky one per cent have three times the risk of the other 99 per cent of the population.

These gene changes now have the potential to be incorporated into existing models to accurately predict an individual's risk, and to improve both prevention and early detection of the disease. The study looked at 11.8 million single-letter 'spelling mistakes' in women's DNA which increase their risk of breast cancer.

The researchers discovered nine more variations affecting the gene BRCA1. In total, they have confirmed 107 genetic variants and discovered 72 new ones. The discovery allowed the team to calculate that one in ten women have a 70 per cent higher risk of getting breast cancer.

About 70 per cent of all breast cancers are fuelled by the sex hormone oestrogen and respond to hormone therapies such as tamoxifen.
Others, known as oestrogen-receptor negative, are not affected by the hormone and are more difficult to treat.

In a second study, the researchers found 10 new variants linked to these cancers, the two cancer types are biologically distinct and develop differently.
Breast cancer susceptibility is due to the effect of a large number of inherited genetic variants, each of which may only confers a slight increase in breast cancer risk, when the strongly predisposing genes such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 are not considered.

The study discovered 65 new variants, some of which are common, have each of which has only a small effect on breast cancer risk, but cumulatively they could be very important in altering a woman's risk of breast cancer.
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Links between microbiomes and autoimmune disorders

Bacteria in human body have all kinds of positive effects on our health, the bacteria in the gut have many beneficial functions. They help in digestion, prevent infection by pathogens and strengthen immune system to fight diseases.

A new function of a protein in the gut microbiome reveals potential impacts for those who suffer from inflammatory bowel disease IBD. A protein expressed by gut bacteria called Bacteroides works to prevent IBD by rapidly recruiting white blood cells to kill a cell of the immune system that is responsible for orchestrating IBD.

However, there is a flipside to the protein's call for help. In some people, the white blood cells overreact to the presence of the IBD bacteria. This is what causes problems like IBD, it's not the bacteria itself, but the immune system's severe reaction triggered by the protein.

These same overstimulated white blood cells are also the cells that cause other autoimmune disorders like diabetes, this discovery demonstrates the effect the gut microbiome has on the immune system and unearths a novel mechanism through which changes in the gut microbiome can increase the risk of autoimmune disorders.
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Diseases caused by pollution were responsible for untimely death

Diseases caused by pollution were responsible for premature deaths across the globe, three times more deaths than AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria combined; and fifteen times more than all wars and other forms of violence. It kills more people than smoking, hunger and natural disasters.

In some countries, it accounts for one in four deaths. Pollution kills the poor and the vulnerable. Nearly 92% of pollution-related deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries. Children face the highest risks because exposures to chemicals in utero and in early childhood can result in lifelong disease, disability, premature death, as well as reduced learning and earning potential.

Pollution is closely tied to climate change and biodiversity. Fossil fuel combustion in higher-income countries and the burning of biomass in lower-income countries accounts for 85% of airborne particulate pollution.

 Major emitters of carbon dioxide are coal-fired power plants, chemical producers, mining operations, and vehicles. Accelerating the switch to cleaner sources of energy will reduce air pollution and improve human and planetary health.
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Oral bacteria contributing to bowel disorders

An international team of researchers has found evidence that suggests certain types of oral bacteria may cause or exacerbate bowel disorders. Bowel disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease are more than just a nuisance, they can cause serious degradation to quality of life, and in some cases, can even be deadly.

Finding a link between bacteria that live in the mouth and common bowel disorders could show the association between oral bacteria and bowel disorders. Patients with one of the three main types of bowel disorders also had higher than normal levels of oral bacteria in their feces, suggesting higher levels in their guts. Suspecting there may be a link, researchers conducted several experiments to learn more about the connection between the two types of bacteria.

In the first experiment, the researchers introduced human saliva from people with Crohn's disease into the guts of mice with a sterilized gut microbiome. A closer look revealed the bacteria responsible for the inflammation was Klebsiella pneumoniae, a strain commonly found in the human mouth, but seldom in the gut.

In another experiment, the researchers introduced the bacteria directly into the intestines of healthy mice and found it caused no problems. Giving the mice Klebsiella-resistant antibiotics once again caused inflammation when Klebsiella was introduced. Other experiments with saliva from colitis patients offered similar results. There may be a link between the oral bacteria and bowel disorders.
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E-cigarette can cause lung diseases

E-cigarettes lead to as many lung diseases as tobacco products,
researchers compared saliva samples from tobacco smokers, e-cigarette smokers and nonsmokers. They found that e-cigarette smokers were likely to develop dangerous proteins associated with lung diseases such as COPD and cystic fibrosis and that the devices are not better for people than regular cigarettes.

E-cigarettes might not be the ideal alternative smokers addicted to tobacco are looking for. Previous research has proven that e-cigarettes can cause lifelong damage to the heart, one puff of an e-cigarette is all it takes to increase the risk of having a heart attack. E-cigarette smokers have elevated levels of neutrophil-extracellular-trap NET related proteins in their airways. NET proteins fight off pathogens, but increased levels of them can lead to inflammatory lung illnesses.

E-cigarettes are as dangerous as smoking - just ONE puff could be all it takes to increase the risk of a heart attack. E-cigarettes do inflict life-long damage on nonsmokers' hearts that is similar to tobacco cigarettes. Replacing tobacco products with e-cigarettes is dangerous, some of the flavoring agents and other products used in e-cigarettes are toxic.

The proteins are associated with COPD and cystic fibrosis, both of which make it hard for patients to breathe. E-cigarette smokers also have increased NET levels outside of their lungs, according to the study. This can cause cell death in tissues that line organs and blood vessels. E-cigarette smokers have an increased risk of suffering from bronchitis, asthma, bronchiectasis and wheezing. E-cigarettes is as bad as tobacco cigarettes
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Perfect skin care guide

According to dermatologists, analysing how hydrated your face is and how it produces oils will dictate the correct skin care products. This analysis can help when you are deciding what cleanser, moisturizer and exfoliator to use during your skin care. A skin analysis gives your skin the opportunity to be examined and studied by an expert. Dehydration skin analysis involves measuring the amount of water the skin has versus the water it can retain.

Using skin analysis tool, the reading of 30 or below means the skin is severely dehydrated, between 30 to 50 means its somewhat dehydrated and above 50 means it is hydrated. Hydration level will determine what areas in the skin care routine might need improvement.

Ultraviolet light is used to check for sun damage and determine if the t-zone is active. Some people experience dryness in their skin because they over clean their skin to remove oil, skin has to retain essential oils in order to keep it hydrated. Using ultraviolet light, estheticians can determine the activeness of the t-zone and if the skin is oily, normal or dry.

Knowing your skin type and problem areas you want to solve can help you understand what works best for each phase of the skin care routine. Get a gentle cleanser that fits your specific skin type: sensitive, normal, dry, combination or oily. Use a gentle cleanser to clean your face, rub the product gently onto the face until it lathers. Circular motions are important because it gets the blood flowing in the skin and allows the product to reach deep into the pores.

Use toner to get rid of oils and dead skin that might be left behind during the cleansing phase. Applying serum after the toner, it adds nutrients to all the layers of the skin. Addition of serum can correct uneven texture, dark marks or dehydration. Then apply moisturizer with SPF during the day to protect the skin from harmful UV rays. Use an exfoliator to remove dead skin cells that are left behind in the pores. You can do this weekly.
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How obesity causes breast cancer

Obesity leads to the release of cytokines into the bloodstream which impact the metabolism of breast cancer cells, making them aggressive to treatment.
Severe overweight can lead to various health impairments. Besides inducing cardiovascular diseases, obesity for example also promotes the development of cancer and metastases.

ACC1 acetyl-CoA-carboxylase 1, a central component of fatty acid synthesis. ACC1 mediates the chemical addition of carbon dioxide to acetyl-CoA, which results in malonyl-CoA. This reaction is the first and speed determining step in the fatty acid synthesis of all living organisms.

ACC1 enzymes is a key component of fatty acid synthesis, its function is impaired by the cytokines leptin and TGF-β. The levels of these cytokines are increased particularly in the blood of severely overweight people.

Fatty acid precursors promote metastasis. The inhibition of ACC1 leads to the accumulation of the fatty acid precursor acetyl-CoA. This precursor is transferred to certain gene switches that in turn increase the metastatic capacity of cancer cells by activating a specific gene program.

Scientists used human tissue from breast cancer metastases to show that ACC1 was less active. When the scientists blocked the unknown signaling pathway with an antibody directed against the leptin receptor, this led to a significantly reduced metastatic spread of breast cancer tumors in an experimental model.
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Improper chewing of foods can cause choking

Laughing or talking while eating is the primary cause of choking, throwing objects into the air to then catch in the mouth, and cutting food up into perfect circles for children can also contribute to choking.

Choking can prevent speaking, crying, coughing and breathing which can leads to unconsciousness and death.
In such an event the NHS guidance is to give the person five sharp blows on the back, followed by five abdominal thrusts - known as the Heimlich manoeuver .

When someone is choking, no oxygen is reaching their brain. Hence, not chewing food properly can kill within ten minutes. Brain damage is possible after four minutes of choking, while it is expected if the airways have not been cleared after eight minutes.

People who start choking should perform the Heimlich manoeuver on themselves. Using a chair, adults can generate enough pressure to dislodge something stuck in their airways, giving yourself a Heimlich manoeuver could save your life.

If you find yourself choking, find yourself a chair to perform the Heimlich manoeuver, line your abdomen area up to the flat back of a chair for the best way of targeting the airways. Use both hands to grip the chair and then push against it to exert enough force to try and dislodge the obstruction. Chokers should put a bunched fist in the space just underneath their rib cage and tummy button.

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Important vitamins for healthy teeth

No matter how thoroughly you clean your teeth, you are probably still exposing yourself to tooth decay. According to dentist, brushing and flossing are not enough to prevent cavities and harmful levels of tooth enamel. Maintaining good eating habits is the only way to stave off weak, unhealthy teeth.

Adding four crucial vitamins into your diet will improve oral health, these vitamins can save your teeth from decayed - A, K2, D and E
Vitamin A : dairy products, eggs, carrots, yellow or dark vegetables
Vitamin K2 : butter, eggs, salami, soft cheeses
Vitamin E: broccoli, spinach, nuts
Vitamin D : mushrooms, fatty fish, some dairy products

Without enough vitamin A, your mouth will not produce enough saliva that gets rid of harmful bacteria, When you are not getting enough vitamin A, your salivary glands cannot do their job and it can contribute to pits on the surface of enamel.

Vitamin D is essential for strong bones and teeth.The immune system within the teeth is called odontoblasts, which needs vitamin D to be activated. Your ordontoblasts are the cells of your teeth that produce dentin and are vital to tooth regeneration.

Without vitamin K2, taking calcium supplements is useless. Vitamin K2 aids the function of calcium. Vitamin E, an antioxidant, controls the levels of bacteria in the mouth. The supplement regulates the microbiome in the mouth, which houses viruses, fungi and bacteria.
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History of pregnancy and blood transfusion

According to new study, males transfused with blood from a woman with a history of pregnancy appear to be 13 percent more likely to die compared with those who received blood from man. The highest risk seemed to be in men 18 to 50 years old. They had a 50 percent increased risk of death after receiving blood from a previously pregnant female, the risk remained increased for many years after transfusion.

 No such increase was observed for female recipients, or for male recipients over 50 years. Pregnancy might affect a woman's immune system in some way that makes her blood more risky for a man. However, the risk is unlikely to prompt any immediate change in blood donation policies.

The study focused on patients data that received blood transfusions from - men, never-pregnant women and women who'd been pregnant. After receiving a single transfusion, the three-year death rate among men was 13.5 percent for those who received male blood, 13.1 percent for those who got never-pregnant female blood, and nearly 17 percent for those who received blood from a previously pregnant female.

U.S. blood centers sometimes exclude women with a history of pregnancy from donation of blood products like platelets or plasma, due to a condition called transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). TRALI typically occurs within six hours of a transfusion, and between 5 to 25 percent of patients who develop the condition die from it, according to the U.S. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.

TRALI is thought to be caused by antibodies that women develop through exposure to fetal blood during pregnancy. It has been associated specifically with previously pregnant female donors, the researchers said.
However, those antibodies aren't what caused the death risk found in this new study, which stretches out for years.

Pregnancy might make a lasting change to the immune system of a woman, because she has to tolerate a foreign object in her body for nine months,
There is a lot of immune regulation involved in making a pregnancy possible, some of this suppressive regulation could last long after the pregnancy.
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Genes and environment can increase the risk of congenital heart defects

Infants of mothers with diabetes have increased risk of congenital heart defects. Such developmental defects are likely caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The molecular mechanisms by which maternal diabetes disrupts normal heart development in genetically susceptible individuals remain unclear.

The Cardiovascular Research describe a gene-environment interaction resulting in congenital heart defects in both mouse and fly model systems. Interaction between two genes, Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase and Notch1, would result in more severe types of congenital heart defects in animal models. Diabetes is known to be associated with decreased nitric oxide levels in blood vessels.

Maternal diabetes, in combination with a mutation in Notch1, would result in a higher risk of congenital heart disease.
Researchers showed that maternal hyperglycemia reduces the chromatin accessibility of the Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase gene, resulting in decreased nitric oxide production.

This loss of nitric oxide is associated with an increase in expression of Jarid2, a known repressor of the Notch1 gene. This directly inhibited Notch1 expression to levels below a critical threshold necessary for normal heart development. This study lends support to a gene-environment interaction model where maternal hyperglycemia raises the risk of congenital heart defects by reducing Notch1 expression.

The results reveal the epigenetic machinery by which maternal hyperglycemia disrupts the Nitric Oxide and Notch1 signaling pathways, leading to congenital heart defects. Infants that are exposed to hyperglycemia develop a congenital heart defect, which supports the idea that there are genetically susceptible individuals.
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