How brain imaging redefine intelligence

High-tech scans of the resting human brain can provide a new way to define and interpret the brain's actual mental capacity, new research suggests. NYU School of Medicine researchers used a specialized imaging technology to measure patients' brains for entropy , the variety of nerve circuits used to interpret the surrounding world.

Part of theories on human consciousness, the concept of entropy has become a greater research focus with recent improvements in the ability of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to track chemical activity patterns in the brain.

By analyzing fMRI images in every region of the brains in 892 American men and women, the study authors linked greater entropy to more versatile processing of information. This is considered a key aspect of intelligence, researchers say, because of the large volume of sensory information coming into the brain from its environment.

Functional MRI scans of brain entropy are a new means to understanding human intelligence," says study lead investigator Glenn Saxe, MD, a professor in child and adolescent psychiatry at NYU School of Medicine and a member of NYU Langone Health's Neuroscience Institute.

Human intelligence is so meaningful because it is about the capacity to understand whatever may come, when there is no way beforehand to know what may come. An intelligent brain has to be flexible in the number of possible ways its nerve cells, or neurons, may be rearranged.

Functional MRI scans use magnetic fields and radio waves to measure subtle changes in blood flow to detect which brain cells and circuits are active or inactive. As part of the study, people were tested when their brains and minds were resting (not unengaged in a particular task) to get a base reading. Study participants had their brains imaged as they enrolled in the Harvard-based Brain Genomics Superstruct study over the last decade, with the stored images forming the foundation of the NYU team's analysis.

Researchers compared hundreds of fMRI scans taken milliseconds apart. The scans revealed the number of possible combinations of electrically active brain cells available to interact with each other in specific regions of the brain. The research team then used mathematical models validated by past studies to arrive at reliable, statistical entropy scores based on how well one set of active nerve-cell combinations captured by one image predicted those in the next image. Experts say the activity level of the estimated 100 billion neurons in the brain depends on how much sensory information is being processed at any instant, with many often inactive.

Scientists next compared their statistical measures of relatively higher or lower entropy with participants' scores on two standard IQ tests: the Shipley-Hartford test, which gauges verbal skills, and the Wechsler test, which assesses problem-solving abilities. If brain entropy could offer useful insight into intelligence, then it should track closely with IQ scores.

People with average intelligence have an IQ score of about 100, with current study participants having an above-average IQ, at 108. Study participants ' entropy scores were strongly tied to IQ. Using standard statistical techniques that were performed two different ways to ensure accuracy, the researchers found that higher entropy was significantly related to the brain regions where previous research has shown it matters most.

 Entropy scores closely matched IQ scores from the Shipley-Hartford test for the left side of the middle brain (the left inferior temporal lobe), which is tied to learning speech. Similarly, entropy scores tracked closely with those from the Wechsler test for the front region of the brain (bilateral anterior frontal lobes), a known center for organization, planning, and emotional control.
           haleplushearty.blogspot.com

Brain cells may prevent Parkinson's disease

A Norwegian study shows that impairment in mitochondria may actually protect the brain in Parkinson's disease. Mitochondria are microscopic power stations found inside human cells. They convert foodstuffs into fuel, providing the required energy. Studies in brain tissue from individuals with Parkinson's disease showed that an essential component of the mitochondrial energy generators, called respiratory complex-I, becomes impaired in an area of the brain called the "substantia nigra" .

A new study from the University of Bergen (UiB), in Norway, in collaboration with the University of Cambridge, shows that the function of mitochondria, the microscopic powerhouses of the cell, is altered throughout the entire brain of individuals with Parkinson's disease. This new study shows that complex I deficiency is a global phenomenon in the brain of people with Parkinson's disease, and is found indiscriminately in both affected and healthy brain regions.

 Intriguingly, brain cells (neurons) with decreased complex I levels are significantly less likely to contain Lewy bodies, the abnormal protein-aggregates that characterize Parkinson's disease. These discoveries suggest that, contrary to mainstream theory, mitochondrial complex I deficiency may not be entirely deleterious for the brain in Parkinson's disease. It is possible that complex I deficiency is part of a compensatory regulation attempting to protect the brain in Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease is one of the most common brain disorders. It affects millions of people worldwide. It starts after the age of 50 and causes a combination of debilitating symptoms, including shaking and other abnormal movements, loss of balance, low blood pressure, bladder and intestinal problems, sleeping disorders and dementia. Presently, there is no cure and patients die prematurely due to increasing disability.
           haleplushearty.blogspot.com

Intense workout can improve memory

The latest study showed that six weeks of 20-minute bouts of interval training led to significant improvements in high-interference memory. Researchers discovered that these workouts led to increases in a protein involved in the growth, function and survival of brain cells.

Intense workout could reduce the rates of Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia, improvements in this type of memory from exercise might help to explain the previously established link between aerobic exercise and better academic performance. Intense workout prevents memory impairment brought on by conditions such as dementia.
          haleplushearty.blogspot.com

Levels of genetic code can cause neuropsychiatric disorders

Studying the genetic code allows researchers to know whether some patients with neuropsychiatric disorders either have extra copies of the CHRNA7 gene or are missing copies. Pluripotent stem cell technology helps better understand neuropsychiatric disorders. Taking skin biopsies from patients with these conditions, grow the cells in culture in the lab and reprogram them to become brain cells. Using this approach, researchers gained insights into the mechanisms of disease at the neuronal level.

The CHRNA7 gene is translated into CHRNA7 proteins that form a channel on the cell membrane that allows calcium to enter the cells. By regulating calcium levels, the CHRNA7 gene plays an important role on how neurons communicate and function with each other. The researchers found that neurons with fewer copies of the gene show a reduction in calcium flux, almost half of what they see in control samples, which they expect will have functional consequences on neuronal functioning in those patients.

These results provide insights into why the patients with fewer copies of the gene share clinical characteristics with the patients with extra copies of the gene, despite having opposite underlying genetic makeup. In both cases, the result of the genetic imbalance is a decrease in calcium flux in the neurons. Clinically, while the patients with fewer copies present with moderate to severe cognitive impairment, high prevalence of autism and other neuropsychiatric problems, those with extra copies present with similar but less severe characteristics.

Opposite genetic imbalance results in similar biological effect mediated by different mechanisms. In the case of neurons with fewer copies of the gene, and therefore fewer CHRNA7 proteins to form calcium channels, the researchers proposed that the reduction in calcium flux in the cells results from having fewer calcium channels.For the neurons with extra copies of the gene, we found that having extra copies of the gene results in more CHRNA7 proteins, which overwhelms the process that assembles them together, causes cellular stress and disturbs the formation of calcium channels.
          haleplushearty.blogspot.com

Effects of repeated alcohol comsumption on the brain

Drinking more than one glass of wine a night is enough to kill cells in key regions of a woman's brain. A study on mice found that drinking alcohol is damaging to the subventricular region of the brain, where new brain cells are created to sustain brain function, and protect against tumors and neurodegenerative diseases.

Research showed that female brains displayed more severe deficits after drinking than males, who would need more than 14 drinks a week to suffer significant damage. Prolonged alcohol abuse can cause severe brain damage and neurodegeneration. The number of nerve cells in the adult brain was fixed early in life and the best way to treat alcohol-induced brain damage was to protect the remaining nerve cells.

Research has shown that adult brains produce stem cells that create new nerve cells and alcohol is suppressing that process. Researchers used a technique that allowed them to tag brain stem cells and observe how they migrate and develop into nerve cells over time. This allowed them to study the impact of long-term alcohol consumption on the cells.

The female brains displayed more severe intoxication behaviors and greatly reduced the pool of stem cells in the subventricular zone, where the new cells are generated. The findings show that the effects of repeated alcohol consumption differed across brain regions. And the region most susceptible to the effects of alcohol was one of two brain regions where new cells are created in adults.

Drinking a glass of wine, or five ounces with a 12 percent alcohol content, can lower one's risk of dying from cardiovascular disease, research found. But the report does warn that heavy drinking increases the risk of mortality and the development life-threatening illnesses.
          haleplushearty.blogspot.com

How sleep helps the brain

Sleep contributes to the brain's ability to change and reorganise itself and this can help people with learning and memory disorders. Researchers used cutting edge techniques to record activity in the dendrites. Dendrite is parts of brain cells that is responsible for keeping new information.

They discovered that activity in dendrites increases when we sleep, and that this increase is linked to specific brain waves that are seen to be key to how we form memories.

Human brain have the ability to change and adapt based on our different experiences, sleep is very important for the changes. A large proportion of these changes may occur during very short and repetitive brain waves known as spindles.

Sleep spindles have been associated with memory formation in humans. During spindles, specific pathways are activated in dendrites, allowing memories to be reinforced during sleep.
          haleplushearty.blogspot.com

Social activities can prevent dementia

Brain cells may die as we get older, mental and social activities promote new connections between cells. Keeping the brain active increases connections between brain cells and builds up cognitive reserve.

Regular mental activities can keep the brain healthy, learn something new everyday. Challenging yourself with mentally stimulating activities can prevent dementia.

Cognitive stimulating activities like reading, playing games and dancing can improve brain functions and prevent dementia. Regular mental activities can keep the brain healthy.

Socialising reduces risk of depression that can result from isolation. Social interaction is also good for the brain because it stimulates connections between brain cells. Combining physical and mental activity are very effective in preventing dementia.
         haleplushearty.blogspot.com

Depression changes the structure of the brain

Depression is a mood disorder that causes a regular feeling of sadness, rejection, sorrow and loss of interest. It affects feelings, thinking and behavior.

The recent scanning study shows how depression changes the structure of brain by causing alterations on white matter that contains fibre tracts that enable brain cells to communicate with one another by electrical signals.

White matter is a key component of the brain's wiring and its disruption has been linked to problems with emotion processing and thinking skills.

Scientists used a cutting-edge technique to map the structure of white matter and discovered that white matter integrity was reduced in people who are depressed but normal in the group of people that are not depressed.

 Symptoms of depression are low mood,  feelings of emptiness, forgetfulness, fatigue, restlessness, anxiety, worthlessness, helplessness, insomnia, loss of interest in activities and thoughts of suicide.
           haleplushearty.blogspot.com

Carpolobia lutea plant may be effective for treating Alzheimer’s disease

Carpolobia lutea is a small shrub found in Central and West Africa. Scientific studies have shown that Carpolobia lutea plant has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties.

The plant was effective in preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine when tested. At higher concentrations, its extract prevents acetylcholine breakdown than Ezerine drug, lowers free radicals and harmful molecules that damage brain cells.

Alzheimer’s patients experienced reduction in neurotransmitter acetylcholine leading to problems with memory and attention.

Carpolobia lutea plant could protect chemical messengers in the brain, reduces levels of free radicals and harmful molecules that destroy brain cells. It's extract could be used to produce new drugs for treating Alzheimer’s disease because of its anti-inflammatory properties.
          haleplushearty.blogspot.com

Low blood flow in the brain may be a sign of dementia

High blood pressure and decreased blood flow in the brain may cause the build-up of dangerous amyloid plaque in the brain. Having problems with the blood vessels in the brain may affect thinking, cognition and memory.

Brain's blood vessels work like a plumbing system that distributes oxygen to every parts of brain cells and remove waste materials from the cells.

The brain relaxes its vessels to maintain constant blood flow as it adjusts for changes in blood pressure, but the brain vessels in Alzheimer's patients prevent blood flow and allow amyloid to get to the brain cells.

Alzheimer's patients have lower blood flow in their brains than the people without the disease. They experience cognitive decline and memory loss that leads to dementia.

Taking blood pressure lowering drugs can reduce the effects on memories of affected people because the drugs can cross the blood-brain barrier and prevents the toxins from getting to the brain.
          haleplushearty.blogspot.com

Extra-virgin olive oil prevents cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease

Extra-virgin olive oil protects memory and learning ability and reduces the formation of amyloid-beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain.

The oil reduces brain inflammation and activates autophagy. Autophagy is the process of cells breakdown and removing of intracellular toxins like amyloid plaques and tau tangles.

Brain cells from mice fed with diets enriched in extra-virgin olive oil had higher levels of autophagy and reduced levels of amyloid plaques and phosphorylated tau. Phosphorylated tau causes neurofibrillary tangles that leads to nerve cell dysfunction in the brain that causes Alzheimer disease.

 Transgenic mouse model was used by researchers to investigate the links between extra-virgin olive oil and dementia, Alzheimer's disease.

The researchers divided the animals into two groups, one that received a diet enriched with extra-virgin olive oil and one that received the regular diet without the oil.

The olive oil was introduced into the diet when the mice were six months old, before symptoms of Alzheimer's disease begin to emerge in the animal model.

 There was no difference between the two groups of animals. However, at age 9 months and 12 months, mice on the extra virgin olive oil diet performed significantly better on tests designed to evaluate working memory, spatial memory, and learning abilities.

Studies of brain tissue from both groups of mice showed dramatic differences in nerve cell appearance and function.
The integrity of the connections between neurons, known as synapses, were preserved in animals on the extra-virgin olive oil diet.

Brain cells from animals in the olive oil group showed a dramatic increase in nerve cell autophagy activation, which was solely responsible for the reduction in levels of amyloid plaques and phosphorylated tau.

        haleplushearty.blogspot.com